Critical
Review
Hypothesis
Traditional classroom design is out-dated and
currently holding the UK back in educational standards. The early development
of children could be notably improved by key design aspects in the classroom
and circulation, due to improving a child’s concentration.
Contents
1.0
– Introduction
2.0
- The Effects of Lighting on Pupil Performance
2.1 - The Effects of Lighting on Pupil Performance:
Section Conclusion
3.0 - The
Effects of Colour in Classrooms on Child Development
3.1 - The
Effects of Colour in Classrooms on Child Development: Section Conclusion
4.0 - The Effect of Space, Shape
and Flexibility in Classroom Design on Pupils
4.1 - The Effect of Space, Shape and Flexibility in Classroom Design on
Pupils: Section conclusion
5.0 - Executive
Conclusion
6.0 - Bibliography
1.0 Introduction
Environmental
psychology concerns the environments interaction with the body/mind. It became a distinct form of psychology in
the mid-1960s and is now recognised around the world. (Hunter, 2005)
This review examines
literature with a direct relation to the effects of environmental stimuli[1] on early education. Care
has been taken to use credible empirical backed sources, ranging from 1954 to
present day, achieving a breadth of knowledge from the past 71 years.
Many of the sources
reviewed are informed by quantitative study conducted under strict control.
Analytical and empirical data, gives credence to their theories and findings.
The abundance of
research and information is largely un-used. As of August 2015, the number of
top grades across the UK had dropped for the fourth year consecutively (Gurney-Read,
2015) ,
posing questions into why the research isn’t used and whether it is a result of
how the government guides designers. A comparison has therefore been taken
between the established research and governmental design documents.
Three main areas
have been chosen for study, each reflecting a particular aspect of classroom
design. Lighting is crucial in any internal environment and could be
categorised in the services area of construction. Colour is representative in
the finishing of buildings and could be retro-fit into school environments. Space,
shape and flexibility of classroom design are conceived at the early stage and control
the classrooms function.
2.0 The Effects of Lighting
on Pupil Performance
Lighting is an established factor
explored throughout environmental psychology. Its importance is noted on all
accounts in the literary articles based on its application within the
educational setting. The notion gained support in 1999 due to a quantitative
study by the Mahone Group. This created traction for the subject and built its
case as an essential requirement (Mahone Group, 1999). Natural lighting in
general is required in almost all case within the teaching environment (Mahone
Group, 1999): (Tanner, 2009): (Marchand et al., 2014).
Tanner supported this, noting a 15% increase
in mathematical learning speed and a 20% increase in reading skill in naturally
lit classrooms (Tanner, 2009). This is a reduced figure in comparison to the
Mahone study which noted children learning in predominately day lit rooms
performed 20% better in mathematics and 23% in reading ability (Mahone Group,
1999). Both studies offer differing percentages in correlation to performance however
a trend can be established as both point to data backed reasoning in the
benefits of maximising day light in the classrooms.
Though day lighting is shown to be
beneficial, further design aspects regarding the windows (the primary methods
of achieving day lighting) are explored. Barrett, upon a quantitative study
conducted in the UK, found natural light should be evident from more than one
orientation with a clear emphasis of lighting from the southern façade, whilst
ensuring the views outside are not compromised (Barrett et al., 2015). Tanner concurs
but adds that art related classrooms should use northern windows which allow
for constant natural light throughout the day (Tanner, 2009).
The use of windows can inhibit performance.
The California Energy Commission found some of the classrooms with exceptional
day lighting from predominately glazed walls were under performing against
trend. It was discovered that these classrooms tended to receive high levels of
outdoor noise and reverberation due to the acoustic qualities of glass (California
Energy Commission, 2003.). Barrett can also be quoted as saying;
“Light
has the highest impact on Overall Progress among other design parameters.
However, window size alone was not significantly correlated with the learning
progress. Only when the orientation and risk of glare was taken into
consideration, could the pupils benefit from the optimum glazing size” (Barrett
et al., 2015, pg 128), outlining the need for design consideration when
specifying and placing windows as to
achieve their intended effect.
Discussion then turned into
artificial lighting. Research suggests there is no direct link with traditional
fluorescent lighting and student health and well-being (Graetz and Goliber,
2002) which is currently used up and down the country. Barrett found during that
‘good’ artificial lighting is required (Barrett
et al., 201), The definition of good isn’t explored but texts have offered examples
of good lighting as being full-spectrum[2] lighting, matching the wave
lengths found in day light. (Graetz and Goliber, 2002):(Tanner, C, 2008)
The government provides an overview
of these principles in building bulletin 90 and the EFA daylight design guide. (Department for
Education and Employment, 1999): (Education Funding
Agency, 2014)
The documents guide how to achieve natural
light and minimise glare etc. without supporting why natural lighting is
required. BB 99 for primary school design doesn’t mention the requirement for
natural lighting even though there is an explicit section titled key design
requirements (Department for Education and Skills, n.d.)
2.1 - The Effects of
lighting on Pupil Performance: Section Conclusion
It is pronounced throughout
the literary resources the need for natural lighting and good quality lighting
in correlation with student performance. Governmental documentation shows how
to achieve the lighting levels but doesn’t highlight its positives. With this
in question why isn’t more of this adopted in main stream design? Without the legal obligation for high quality
lighting and informed design, clients and councils are less likely to include
research backed design philosophies in their proposals. This could be down to
cost saving in providing large glazed facades with several orientations, poor
awareness or poor site choice. Due to the site orientation it will be possible
to apply all of the design principles found at an early stage in the New
Meadows Primary School Project.
3.0 The Effects of Colour
in Classrooms on Child Development
This topic is discussed
throughout the literature in correlation with student performance with many
sources offering different views (Engelbrecht, 2003): (Barrett
et al., 2015). Barrett and co found that walls and carpets should be bright
coloured but just off white, noticing a difference in overall pupil performance
in relation (Barrett et al., 2015). Hunter and Engelbrecht found that warm, bright
colours contributed to child development (Engelbrecht, 2003): (Hunter, 2008).
Gaines and Curry found warm but not bright colours such as sand and beige to be
the most effective (Gaines and Curry, 2011). This presents a problem when analysing the
data, Engelbrecht and Hunter deduced this through secondary research as did
Gaines and Curry using sources from the US. Barrett and co established their
findings through a quantitative study conducted in the UK, giving more credit
for its application in the UK.
Adding further depth, a study conducted
directly into children’s favourite colours and responses, suggested designers
use bright, cool colours with an emphasis on purple (Read
and Upington, 2009). This conclusion was drawn through empirical
research, showing red to be predominately a child’s favourite colour with purple
a close second. Purple was advised due to It being, a mix of the warm red,
shown to be children’s favourites and cool blue which works well with
concentration. (Read and Upington, 2009). This plots it as a mid-point between
the other literatures.
Colour is not as
simple as picking a one shade fits all. Gaines and Curry argued the requirement
for a selection of different colours based on the activity of the room (Gaines
and Curry, 2011). An example of this is
the effect of pink on a child’s motor skills, it is found to increase their
strength and arousal[3] (Hamid
and Newport, 1989) in application this would be beneficial in physical
education related rooms.
Though a general consensus on colours and
their effects cannot be gained, Gaines and Curry argue an avoidance of colour produces
negative effects (Gaines and Curry, 2011). This is loosely supported by
Engelbrecht whom found the introduction of colour in classrooms reduced
accidents by 28% (Engelbrecht, 2003). Conversely extreme primary colours causes
over stimulation and in turn negative effects (Gaines and Curry, 2012).
Governmental
documents give no formal guidance. The only mentions of colour refer to
reflectance in regards to lighting (Educating Funding Agency, 2014). The BB99
briefly mentions colour schemes but indicates they should be standard across
all rooms to allow for flexibility of use (Department for Education and Skills,
n.d.)
3.1 The Effects of
Colour in Classrooms on Child Development: Section Conclusion
Summarising, it is
evident throughout literary articles that there is an effect on student
performance/mood, generated by colours however the consensus is struggling to
assimilate what the ideal for this would be. External variables could be contributing to
this such as nationality or day lighting levels within the rooms, affecting the
results. Several or one large quantitative study needs to be taken within the
UK to provide an accepted ideal for early age classroom colour schemes. There are however transferable, accepted points
such as the requirement of colour and the avoidance of over and under stimuli.
The government doesn’t mention the requirement in its design principles for
schools this is likely down to a consensus not being drawn. In general to move
forward The Meadows Primary School, will use purple hues will be as this met
the middle ground between the research articles.
4.0 The Effect of Space,
Shape and Flexibility in Classroom Design on Pupils
For many years it
has been the general idea that schools should be child size in scale as to
represent the needs of the pupil (Caudill, 1954). Hunter explains this as a child’s
method of understanding ownership and belonging to the classroom environment
(Hunter, 2005).
Spacious design as a
positive is found throughout the literature (Tanner, 2009): (Derr and Kellert, 2012).
Tanner suggests overcrowding and density causes a negative impact due to the
loss of personal space (Tanner, 2009). Lackney’s statistical data backs this
theory, claiming spacious classroom sizes have been found to directly affect
the performance of pupils, most evidently at early ages with improvements of up
to 15% in mathematics and reading being noted (Lackney, 2007). Derr and Kellert
find this plays on humans needs for openness and protection. (Derr and Kellert,
2012).
Although creating
spaciousness is desirable negative impacts can occur if it creates social
distance (Tanner, 2009).
Spaces need not be
of one size, Lackney suggests smaller adjacent spaces which group around the
main learning area which are differentiated between to allow for direct
learning (Lackney, 2007).
Aside from the
benefits of spacious design, interesting form and complexity plays towards a child’s
development. (Lackney, 2007). Hunter surmises, that by providing aesthetically
interesting walls and levels, pupil’s creativity is stimulated giving the example
of curvilinear walls and edges (Hunter, 2005). Barrett and co found a
contradiction/addition to this. Key stage 1 children benefit from varying floor
plans and shapes whereas older pupils benefit from the order in traditional
design, also finding over stimulation can occur if the form is too varied, negatively
impacting a child’s performance. (Barrett et al. 2015)
Floor plans
intertwine with the flexibility. Flexibility of the space can be facilitated
through interesting floor plans, creating interesting spaces for younger
children (Etemadi and Kia, 2005): (Barrett et al. 2015). This is furthered by Graetz
and Goliber finding that although flexibility is desirable, unless it is
evident that the space is designed with a specific task in mind, different
usage can confuse pupils and affect collaboration. (Graetz and Goliber, 2002)
BB99 argues against
the aforementioned findings. Whilst outlining flexibility as key, it promotes
standard room types and shapes suggesting standard rectangular classrooms provide
ease of monitoring (Educating funding Agency, 2014). Flexibility outlined in
government documentation is aimed at future planning, allowing the room to be
used differently in its entirety in the future (Educating funding Agency,
2014). In terms of spaciousness the BB103 recommends sizes but doesn’t explore
the psychological importance of classroom size. (Department
for Education and The Education Funding Agency, 2014)
4.1 The Effect of
Space, Shape and Flexibility in Classroom Design on Pupils: Section Conclusion
Size and shape of
classrooms have implications on student performance. Providing spacious rooms
aimed at smaller class sizes offers a positive correlation with performance and
results. Over stimulation is a key area to avoid, by providing balanced forms.
The uptake in conventional primary classroom design is likely low due to the
governments definition of flexibility as a means of future proofing the school
as a whole not in a classroom basis. All
of the principles discussed will be implemented into the form and functionality
of classrooms within the New Meadows Primary School project.
5.0 Executive Conclusion
Throughout this
review sources have been critically analysed to find accepted views and backed
theories in the chosen sections. There is an evident correlation between the environmental
stimuli and the effects on pupil performance, indicating the principles are
essential in educational design. The government documents explored throughout
are not legislatorial, acting only as guidelines for designers. Apart from the
day lighting document, governmental advice is lacking in the colour scheme
selection and the design of spaces within schools. By not producing advice on exemplary
class room design, the government is inhibiting the application of this
information. The application of the findings will be at the core of the New
Meadows Primary School.
6.0 - Bibliography
·
Barrett, P., Davies, F., Zhang, Y.
and Barrett, L. (2015). The impact of classroom design on pupils' learning:
Final results of a holistic, multi-level analysis. Building and Environment,
[online] 89, pp.118-133. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132315000700
[Accessed 25 Nov. 2015].
·
Bonnes, M & Secchiaroli, G
(1995). Environmental Psychology: A Psycho-Social Introduction. London: Sage.
·
California Energy Commission, (2003).
Windows and Classrooms: A Study of Student Performance and the Indoor
Environment. [online] California: California energy Commison, p.10. Available
at:
http://www.energy.ca.gov/2003publications/CEC-500-2003-082/CEC-500-2003-082-A-07.PDF
[Accessed 25 Nov. 2015].
·
Caudill, William W. Toward Better
School Design. New York: F.W. Dodge Corporation, 1954, p. 2.
·
Department for Education, (1999).
LIGHTING DESIGN FOR SCHOOLS. London: Uk government, pp.1 - 81.
·
Department for Education and Skills,
(n.d.). Building Bulletin 99: Briefing Framework for Primary School Projects.
London: UK Government, p.21.
·
Department for Education and The
Education Funding Agency, (2014). Area guidelines for mainstream schools:
BB103. London: UK Government, pp.1 - 45.
·
Derr, Victoria and Kellert, Stephen R, (2012).
Making Children’s Environments "R.E.D": Restorative Environmental
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[Accessed 25 Nov. 2015].
·
Education
Funding Agency, (2014). EFA daylight design guide. London: UK
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·
Engelbrecht,
K. (2003). The Impact of Color on Learning. 1st ed. [ebook] Chicago,
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·
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·
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Designing collaborative learning places: Psychological foundations and new
frontiers. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 2002(92), pp.13-22.
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HAMID,
P. and NEWPORT, A. (1989). EFFECT OF COLOUR ON PHYSICAL STRENGTH AND MOOD IN
CHILDREN. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 69(1), pp.179-185.
·
Hunter, Katie. (2005). Environmental
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https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=ucin1131581482&disposition=inline.
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N., Yunus, R. and Said, N. (2013). Students’ Colour Perception and Preference:
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[1] Anything which
excites an organism to partake in an activity.
[2] Refers to
lighting distributed across a full spectrum without spikes
[3] Motor skills
refer to action taken by arm, legs, feet or the entire body
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